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ՑGCY&Cᇁ   	K    c*5#\8ik &     f f            -&ņ  73    @  U@  *@   @@  UU@  j@   @  U@  @   @  U@  @  ?            ik   f o89vg:oe    @   @ ?    ?	  	 _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Weathering Overview</u></b><br><i>Weathering</i> is the term that describes all the processes that break down rocks in the environment near the earth's surface.  When you look at a mountain range and see piles of loose boulders and debris from landslides, it is weathering that has loosened them from the solid rock of the mountain.  When you dig in a garden or a farmer plants a field, the soil you dig is the natural product of slow, gradual weathering of rocks.  There are two main classes of weathering processes: mechanical and chemical.<br><b>*Mechanical weathering:</b>  Mechanical weathering processes tear apart rocks by breaking them, by physically destroying them.  Mechanical processes physically fracture or pull rocks apart at large scale (outcrops, cliffs) or small (prying individual mineral grains apart).<br><b>*Chemical weathering:</b>  Chemical weathering processes break down rocks atom by atom through chemical reactions.  Water plays an important role here, carrying dissolved ions (charged atoms or molecules) to and from the microscopic sites at which chemical weathering takes place.<br><b>*Climate and weathering:</b>  The water cycle and climate are intimately involved in the processes of weathering.  As you'll learn in this module, hot and wet climate conditions enhance chemical weathering, and cold, wet conditions promote physical weathering.  Weathering processes are typically slower in dry regions, whether cold or hot.<br>The picture at left shows a cloud advancing from the sea (where solar energy evaporates water, creating water vapor) toward the land.  Precipitation in such a setting falls mainly as rain in the low coastal areas and, as the air mass moves up over the mountains, continues to fall as snow.  Gradually, however, the air mass dries out, and the further mountains and plains receive little precipitation.<br>This process produces what is called a "rain shadow" effect - the mountains near the sea cause precipitation and dry out the air mass, producing a "shadow" (and desert, commonly) beyond those mountains.  This is the setting for California, where coastal areas and the Sierra Nevada mountains receive precipitation and Death Valley (among other basins like it) remains dry.<br>Keep this picture of climate zones in mind as you learn about weathering, and consider where each weathering process you study would likely be most prevalent. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    r    x ܀  fX&SB      !=р/6Br%ʴhGjdC;e_:w\עs;^tlPWM
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47sHd_ng"SsEn(uiiHD ǶXƹ9rezS.)yGJUyqZT;M:oOp]"Hn,	YJdC%C ^Flȼ XѴj!+6,d3BVIn&iYhԈj4)U*s:&:˴Zke]<*jB5 B۶ƶsWS!.D鞺v߿ǼَǕEȿxw2XGnYG_xZob>QG!{& ۮm$ Qa^,BDkYQ "^D2;pm *Nɦy%8Riu/2dH΂5k㙨mZ5mM~_nB(䐄`&\ Ҋ\F{Nm$U"7b0!` Hh,*m$ST{C@4 |1>TZhEKYDz, l :>\(F^LU=<c)ڛv4h=G34T9ooҟ_/m$F1\<bnML
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Lmmm#!IO8cJR/̭;#ii \ƵUznY)#?hoG#*ŔUd1\2P;?b:یj ]uAdCD` - ~Ĵp  6eB|ʭ'g2.3y~7{L8=vӥo_[M&ɶ-ؤ]ȏ$fJ \Dh!T"ܴՑYkJk)?*58=aC"u/Ym$H۰JѼN =tJi\QX f\Fٙf"*M2ڏaY2p͈qm#ng,L*4{JTQ{%ʀЏkm}mB!M#RfMZNK" 2\DJs!iӢ}WwZDw;ok>#v^6+ԕ!2環ݙX,#XV 6]eHb־ nZ@ƶs&L(]t!Yp&t(ȦveߛЉWk$ru^/Dg39	5֦F4 b2\Ĵd>?g֩5uOf|/>-q 2_(Br֤7"igkO?@vuǾNz :|ƑęM2Ss	'~9[Ι;M?-iӟ90HKz13lY1:&-ȍ4$d4 Z@̵PB)yUMڄbfy1MaXq1+={rH3
dG!zh"~ ƵB ] HFP5RT2!ZW-7LʡleK4|?v	&FƸs}`M Jr\xƵPTmKI}x(/'T2ISo&!4$Fgh>85(6hi0 .ٍXhBaPHץfK$ :&\@FLm# a38RHfk/J;8"&>.i|sY-)}˙I; n7YvOH )B\Ɛ}|ESs5ۥz)ֈE#=GDlPR3zY(n?CT9IYBHmBPA`b *b\ƶFb6gܺ_CYLg\^ 6)Of5j)'F܈z-ʡrVVYxľQiZ7ov!tv|y5NHY N~@_s+3[;cI2lj 3ܪiJ=^R$*^sDlEb0Y N^(ʆFKl[&ep?)~yD'TpP&.UojNy"mFJ0xc\{Y3̍R'DFW{5S F^@ĴvLOmФ7$ά	_re5xM\,nmmK
@RT51KM>)gz2 &\@FCSK>no$i]f<F2q#6f5<J(&ۍt+#o*'ϑ$Y#kwG[Dh RJ\@Ķ~f9BS>BCew?ɔ%Ɋo@s<Kg꜠皙2CiJʱ/w%DUd5EEVcҝg zJ\)N]yg8g,] rH!X3QHd1y\j˖Gc16r3KJ1BVk&ݹ@. J0ж!DXq) mۑ`(+Sg<bmfJ\:"f̥BB)Y͙H(TЅEX B0ʶ{iH          	p\uPo19sݻs܉'6;1N۹okFZ9^Zv9}G|p5i( 2&Ķ:Շ,<Hi%n?#:2Jw+J!֬vӧ 3,*	;wߗ8O6goڈ' B"\0ĶO-jiNnve$(||zrE 1~bV7)<8'CW-%Ή#A`JCvSTB:lGf Y2#a#Ƞ\יG'*mjr[v"Ko}SEfzP&H,K}?TƟ9+Y|jշ+c2]*Ą *2H̵	рyJgY[3w|g/&ϺxMU%u(=Hͻ,g9MR`:ѭ4W T~ٖ 3R|*H҄uVC~;UЀ&nt.hZmbHjFs`e͏y}8쪂q0d34(v妇׼(Uj@ԑ! Ak&-"cTp؏tVR<Qc[UVjPDc_>6  a,"suY"$9Ȑr
1r"zQBo .@٩Re\-dY<֦'mvѸѿO  A!v&">G"M56=3ZFY]!p Rt0Ƶ43>Pl2Pʳ#n13}U`Y,g֧

Ac3ᱵCZ5N{>eVn&]kbI B҇ƹU[Re)UHŢYrS7(γ&QrG`NrJ踠=X"U@  aA @erl%Μ(= 2wCW#dM˧CA0	%k^i_%פXԦbXxykV$Zך7-+$8{[-Ya@pzvʶ {.b7` J..rrm#_qU$DY~[fffffff[񎙙قC@TU7K5UꪔaH ЂJ*MWÂbB;                                                         7  X                                                                                               	x  .  D   ?P   2  _root.model.storm.rain 0 _root.model.storm.snow 	    @#	   @#    &  zclimatebackdrop   F* 	  vѨi @h   . * Oi @ storm T +  @  Q~ i @ D@  S i @ |@  T
i @ @  V> i @ @  W i @$@  Y~ i @\@  [ i @@  \ i @@  ^Mi @@  _ i @@@  a} i @x@  ci @@  d i @@  fM i @ @  gi @X@  i} i @@  k i @@  l؀@  m h? @  o ?     @  p=Ѐ?     @  qm̀?      @  r ?O      @  s ?O    0 @  uŀ?    0 @  v=?    @ @  wm >ϴ    @ @  x>ϴ    P @  yͺ>    P @  z >    ` @  |- >O    ` @ T ?'   "  _root.model.storm.rain   @ 100 #  }]   , 
7 a   D     @  ~>    p @   @  =t     @  V@  =d     @  	@  v~=OT     @  r@  6h=D     @  \@  R<4   @ @  VF@  <<$   @ @  62@  &<O   @ @   <O   @ @  #V<   @ @  %<   @ @  (;   @ @  *u;   A  @  ,;   A  @  /5;   A @  1;N   A @  4;N   A  @  6u;   A  @  8ծ;   A0 @  ;5:δ   A0 @  =@  ?:   A@ @  BU@  Dx:N   AP @  Gn@  Iub:   A` @  KX@  NUL9t   Ap @  PB@  S69d   A @  Uu,@  W"9NT   A @  Z5@  \9D   A @  ^ @  aT84   A @  c84   A @  f8$   A @  h8$   A @  j8N   A @  mT8N   A @  o8   A @  r8   A @  tt7   A @  vԔ7   A @  y47   A @  {~7   B  @  }r7M   B  @  Th@  ^7   B @  4R@  H6ʹ     @  <@  T26   0 @  &@  6M   @ @  t@  6   P @  3@  5t   ` @  @  s5d   p @  @  35MT   p @  5MT    @  5D    @  S5D    @  44    @  44    @  s4$    @  x4$    @  Sn4M    @  b4M    @  X4    @  sL4    @ ?Q   3  _root.model.storm.rain 50 _root.model.storm.snow 	    @#	   @#  B3       -  @  384    @  œ,4M    @  "4$    @  S5D    @  ̳5MT    @ ?K      _root.model.storm.rain   @ 0 #"  _root.model.storm.snow   @ 100 #  3 5d   p @  ђ5t   P @  6   @ @  R6M   0 @  ز6ʹ     @  7   B @  r7M   B  @  Ҵ7   A @  27   A @  䒠8N   A @  8$   A @  r84   A @  ~9D   A @  2t9NT   A @  h9d   A @  ^:   Ap @  RT:N   AP @  H:   A@ @  >:δ   A0 @  r2;   A  @  (;N   A @  R;   A  @  <   @ @  <O   @ @  q<$   @ @  
<4   @ @  1=D     @  =d     @  =t     @  Q>     @  >O    ` @  1>    P @  >ϴ    @ @  ?O    0 @   Q?      @  "?     @  %z@  p80N@  o0S@  N0Xb@  0]"@  ,0a@  ޜN0fp@  
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0@  ŬB0@  Š`00!|i @l@  Ŕ:0!Pi @@  ň0 i @H@  {0i @@  o̷0 i @$@  c0 i @ @  W0`di @  @      6 . y2 model  L   / \*d]xQ  ff     -j^LDm)//B "[If/ GFm   L   0 \*d]xQ  ff     -j^LDm)//B "[If/ GFm  "   1    /   /   0   0    ` 1 2LM{Lh}G  (   2   /   /   0   0         2 SyLdp G   3   /   /   0   0         this   spinner         O  3 SyL`5h}G  %   4 b' 	  ,%ʝ<Jp  4 ţ5N%   5 b8=  	  ,I=F@  5 Š^9A%   6 b
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  ,<٘t  6 Š^%~C   7 oFP 
 "@a(tdkt}Y| Y Y(YYdkt  7 *@@ `  ?    ?U   _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Mechanical Weathering Overview</u></b><br>Take a hammer and smash a rock into pieces.  <i>That</i> is mechanical weathering.<br><i>Mechanical</i> weathering tears apart rocks by cracking and prying, producing smaller rock fragments with no change in chemical composition from their original rock form.  Any process that breaks down rock in this way contributes to mechanical weathering.  This section explores some examples of the most important mechanical weathering processes: <i>frost wedging, exfoliation, thermal expansion and contraction, crystal growth, tree root growth,</i> and <i>abrasion</i>.<br>Climate helps control which mechanical processes are most active in any given area.  For obvious reasons, frost wedging is not an important process in tropical rain forests.  As you work through each of these weathering processes, think about what climate setting or environmental conditions would optimize its effect.<br>Finally, keep in mind that several different weathering processes can take place at the same time.  In fact, mechanical weathering processes that fracture rocks actually help speed along various chemical weathering processes a great deal by providing more surface area of rock along which the chemical reactions can take place.  scroll  _root    N O   N N    O   ?   8   /   /   0   0             "        8 2LM{L R   9   /   /   0   0              this   spinner         O  9 SyL`5 [   : p r(P 
 "@ EtldÄYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk YLt}Yt  : @  ?%    _root.WeatheringZones      	 ?   _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Frost Wedging</u></b><br>Water <i>expands</i> when it freezes - an ice cube is about 9% larger than the volume of the water before it froze.  It doesn't seem like much, but the expansion of water when it freezes is one of the most effective processes of mechanical weathering.  Click on the red thermometer at left to watch <i>frost wedging</i> in action.<br><b>*Wedging:</b>  A <i>fracture</i> (crack) in a rock provides ice with a lot of leverage.  When the temperature drops below freezing, the upper surface of the water freezes first because it is in contact with the air. The water continues to freeze from the top of the crack downward.  The ice cannot expand upward because the surface is already frozen solid, so the ice exerts force outward on the rock as it grows.<br><b>*Freeze/thaw:</b>  Each freezing may wedge the fracture open just a tiny amount, so it takes many cycles of freezing and thawing, with water filling the fracture each time, to break off a piece of rock.  So frost wedging is a process that is most effective in cold, wet climates in which there are many opportunities for freeze/thaw cycles with water present.  High altitudes (mountain ranges) are particularly prone to such temperature changes.  Large piles of broken rock fragments (called "talus") commonly accumulate at the foot of a mountain from the action of frost wedging.<br><b>*Practical application:</b>  Don't put a can of soda into the freezer to cool it down because expansion of the frozen drink in the closed can may create an explosion!  My daughter exploded a can of root beer in our freezer - unfortunately, the can exploded before all the root beer had been frozen, creating more of a mess. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    q   ; x ܀  fX&SB      !=р/6Br%ʴhGjd;e_:w\עs;^tlPWM
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x$p3{>V2>R;VУI!'ӻ0/PϴmEp!AƌlrE5ytdҜz~`ؙ,dtBwe%w=fNPjAwfM\c   3 {2w~g3R,d}N.o*e7VG씉#WGVl{:NØg8m^<߷!0'$_W׷ʮo;=/ںX[XYB[HFPS4-J{Gx wנ6 ^y59sᾙޠ{W|IKƜ"qRa(o (%f3X7Y^ڪ@  3 ߨ+<V2y^>7@z&5O)FQ4[5U0xJLr&= HrGuEk-:.VMsts9)wNKI`y2^F04 -1;e_:iT/OU@  3 aHkXB$)cSKv2EҔ	6+gneua/ٸiZ_ϪMyu/;MOP7c}zyO0YQ{Ao?/IJ`ЩI0p     ^ f1F  f  f̜;#8k5ws+*^3gU'xZdl.UdҥĀ,λU3e}Sa:0@l]"a2`lbG׀vÛfHcll'-U?gSe_ibi-Ш½.u6%LVZ-2-53i9o>"CN+K¹̨p*Pj#9_g_     _ g  f  fLyV?D͑KkiO]K+5*i~u[Zk\eXsZb3Lgz=͎via<ӦutlESq\)(	#:!d?=	ˇ&e>᳅/;Y Uα     ` fv  f  fYO%Gp礧k3=75S;srDnk&w^V qҞrȿvT.Zg6?SSPvڿͥ*]tLg´ׁ\=6,öjk+ |KMqyFxLóY)w;.6
chMx^    a lc`   %kjxf+1@zԜ
U#S           (    %!c	&-混 `&ktڈn3PmD=Yڈts@j  ȇZ|  4Ҕ8#8"u3Nu3\\8ߋ=e` k   b l*2(l2(=                    
 
       -zQnX[iDr  ʠ8W-v"gm    c P 	   E    d Pf 	   P    e P 	   P    f P4f 	   X    g P4f 	   \  N   h T,Km      5JΌ> ӀCֺhj	]K

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    Pa`(-võ 7  l a+-a-*  i[ak-  3  3            -ik`r?6M9) 󑡜q3]!g(5˵CfgM0~mwɳOHySKIJ^Quv6"soxiOݩ[nı4wKr4@c`T~x4nH	|ܘ0U	˔/})Yi?	h/&տ'tW#po%4֮$]7m}  ho`K,l夂vVrVCL3#9B-Ԏ](>Bod%	{4'y<dTI&JAt04&:S֋ԟ+[mh&f>47ћAY&G;kI&@P{Mܖ#U	|})iK	ho&z&̿%/)pL(I7F 5m>ut$u7M}P <  m fa0f a01  n+evnIV|  3  3            -p/*2vӑRB*L%kk T_UA~g3R,d}N.o*e7VG씉#WGVl{:NØg8m^<߷!0'$_W׷ʮo;=/ںX[XYB[HFPS4-J{Gx wנ6 ^y59sᾙ  pX|u+/2A;c)Bag&ҀVc}*fpAݫKY3ҭGՖ~3>.oe7VG׾3RƼ,t3|0pSy?n`OI5o\W{_toυڱ%n󒲄2=W-iBSOOK,d+;Fo"KTEsz^[My/(i}6|   n d=VF xd x   d#j7tfK    3  3            -c7Hui!(o жN~Z~n꭬=N+<V2y^>7@z&5O)FQ4[5U0xJLr&= HrGuEk-:.VMsts9)wNKI`y2^F0  ~c"W8 iG:ojӀ_KaOHt^ڗ owz`V\THHz`M½<'/AYFҵ0l"ZxVo$C-92aȺn"P	iIrt4焺mS5.}R^5ӆ9)vc:%m%Ԓ7.x  o m l+    ly8Vs`\y8$   3  3            -?*/aH=m=g"	X,:2A	<D{Xz b)&KBO݂_M*/M1)[?/%s-ߛ	~[Ogwf}Rl8˯	yro*|c̒y: <= j5뗻%f|Tɦ8ibQA$,}
be?f	|PҁTХl0w~l%7m;K>I#-t.%{ɼi03R74( O   p Z	My`Y<My )                -h'N{U7M_`  I-کrn6 O   q ^T`)^T ))                -V|7=@  VtݻϦ  "   r ^T )  jygx5 	U  s # D    q  @  @  @  @  @  %@  --@  4@  <<@  C@  KK@  R@  ZZ@  a@  ii@  p@  xx@   @  @  @  @  @  @  -@  @  <@  @  K@  @  Z@  @  i@  @  x@  ?     r  @       t l+ \y8$   3 aHkXB	$	cS)0K堆2EΔ
6+g.cUa/ɸkiZ_LϪMo	u/MOҗP7tީ<ɧIeIFWɬ\'A+5[JM7G'P N   u eR0e_p(                -0%֝+0  0%J韎1 K   v VƯ V '                -Z#U9ٮ8  Z#͵I	.th O   w ]+ eY\P(                -t]z{WsC9L  {\XZ<g]   !   x Y<My   iP#njɀ    y d xtfK    3 -?!yzsj^MEXnsS{	"i!7
e^JXkiY	ɇ"LjbC@',wY[PQ&ӞNx79I{`N笥َ/[ERJ4dZ}M%s
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i '  z f a0ak-  3 jeI2Cs(w91J8l]%q!7Xrr%>gvM`Գ	e*c*?t@;NrhpMѣl)M+Iiѥft|%oɅ~vo %sFEOmP6Cn!iAqD3ιfq(Ȏ[&࣏*@CIP/vR~Snf5	a9p#?@nIV|  3 {w~7g;Z,f|>]F?Uko'@7@0:)#|gn#x=Y7_fga
 25{!~$= =^k^
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҄,YN lVvE ^QӆmmחzY|QZyMJ807ޔ~rS3]  !   { e_p  L1  !   | eY\P  v-yxϧƻ<86.@     } V   K:qkn 	B  ~ d D   ?     [   \  ]  
 ^ Uˈ _ ; `   a   b   c h d f䀊 e f f fY g f킀 j A҈@ 
 Uۈ<4 @ 	 <4 @   <4 @  @ 
 U 9d   ; 9d    9d   33@ 	
 6 &	` 	 6 &	`  6 &	`  L@ 
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 V ,4 MD  ;,4 MD  뙀,4 MD  @ 	
 )d YE 	 )d YE   )d YE  3@ 
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 @ / 	 @ /  K @ / @ 
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 @ <  	 @ <   {@ <  @   l   m   n  	 o  
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@    !	 U@    	   @    B	 *@     	 U5@  # # b'	  @@  ) ) -	 J@  / / 4	 UU@  5 5 ;	  `@  ; ; A	 j@  }A }A 5H	 Uu@  qG qG N	  @  eM eM UU	 @  YS YS [	 U@  MY MY vb	  @  A_ A_ i	 @  6e 6e o	 U@  *k *k 'v	   p  @  s t%:ƽҡc'  q q |	 ʅ 9@  w w H	 UՅ r@  } } ى	   *@    i	  8@    	 U G@ 	  ⎅ ⎅ 	 t   UU@  ֔ ֔  c@  ʚ ʚ  q@    ; u    @    ˷ > 9@    \ } r@    ą  @    }˅  v   @    ҅ 8 > @  wą wą ؅ w% } U@  kʅ kʅ .߅ +  w   @  ϵ1cOЅ _Ѕ _Ѕ  1   @   ұUQ?` Sօ Sօ O 28 8  x  @  ڱEW? G܅ G܅  p> w% @  ُܱ_? < < p D + @   sŏi@  0 0 y   J 1 %@  ji]m@  $ $ ,Q 28 --@  +mMu@`   jW p> 4@  !}@   ] D <<@    GF> z   c J C@  I>- %j ,Q KK@  4v>M  dp jW R@  !>m v ] ZZ@  GX | c a@  "   %j ii@  => ^ dp p@  t&  v xx@  ە |  @  ұш   @  W{Z'  W ^ @  Hچ6    @  *vQ  Ԯ ە @  ]Jj6CT   @  z4ߦX Q W -@  |c\@   @  	fd ǅ Ԯ <@  U+:ɩ ΅  @  IyЅ Kԅ Q K@  
kf څ  @  L=␅  ǅ Z@  ŜH$,ij:  ΅ @  oзaCO_j< E Kԅ i@  >Ŏq8k  څ @  Rŵ%6k:@t   x@    Y[RV	 {    |  @  CC9 E@  Sʬ^pVPA @  ?,_uE6tO @   /D1@wqv  }  @  1l@J! @ @ @ @ @ @ ?    ?    @    ~ '  e    p8 z(P 
 "@%EtldÄYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk Y4à}äk Ya(tp|ÄY|   @  ?$    _root.WeatheringZones      ?c  ! _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Exfoliation</u></b><br>Exfoliation is a term that describes peeling of layers - for example, your skin peels away by exfoliation.  In weathering, <i>exfoliation</i> describes sheets of rock peeling off a bare rock face.  In the picture at left, slabs of rock are breaking loose and sliding off the bare rock surface of this eroding mountain face.  Exfoliation of this sort tends to create a "stepped" appearance to the rock face where successive slabs of rock have broken off.<br><b>*Fracturing:</b>  Why do the rocks break off in layers parallel to the rock face?  As a rock face erodes, rocks underneath have less weight and pressure on them, and thus they <i>expand</i>.  We call this loss of pressure due to erosion "unloading" (a load has been removed from the exposed rocks).  Fractures appear when the rock mass expands near the erosion surface and the fractures from unloading are parallel to the erosion surface.  Then, once fractures are present, water can enter, and frost wedging can aid the process, contributing to exfoliation of the slabs of rock.<br><b>*Rock type:</b>  Exfoliation is most common on rock faces of intrusive igneous rocks such as <i>granite</i>. Granite forms by slow cooling and crystallization of magma deep in the earth's crust, under significant pressure of the overlying rock mass.  Because they are solid crystalline masses without other layering present, granites are thus especially prone to breakage by fracturing parallel to the erosion surface. In contrast, sedimentary rocks tend to have preexisting weaknesses along the planes separating each layer of sediment, and unloading tends to cause them to fracture and break along bedding planes, regardless of whether these planes are parallel to the unloading surface or not.  Exfoliation of sedimentary rocks is pronounced wherever the layers are tilted (dipping) in the same direction in which a hillside slopes.  This situation (dip of beds parallel to the slope) is called a "dip slope" and creates landslide problems in many parts of the world. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    t<   lcߒ} 
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 "@#EtldÄYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk Y0ոxkÌYYdkYÔ   @  ?$    _root.WeatheringZones      ?r  0 _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Thermal Expansion and Contraction</u></b><br>Crystals of rock also expand and contract as they heat and cool, although the amount of expansion is slight.  In environments in which temperature extremes are common, however, this expansion and contraction can loosen grains of a rock enough to cause weathering.  For example, in desert regions the temperature may rise and fall as much as 50 deg Celsius (90 deg Fahrenheit) from day to night; this change is enough to cause measurable weathering over many years.<br><b>*Conduction:</b>  Rocks are poor <i>conductors</i> of heat, so the temperature difference does not penetrate very far into the rock face.  Instead, the heated outer portion of the rock tends to break away from the cooler inner portions.  This process may take place on the scale of just a single layer of crystals or grains of sand in a sandstone (press the Start button on the left to see this in action).  This grain-by-grain breakage makes this a slow process.  Once the rock begins to break up, however, other processes, such as frost wedging and crystal growth, may contribute to helping the rock break up faster.
*Fires:  Even more pronounced is the fracturing of rocks that occurs during exposure to forest fires.  Under these conditions, temperatures may rise briefly by 200 deg C or more, and exposed rock will expand enough to spall many small pieces off the rock face.  Similarly, campfires can cause enough thermal expansion for rocks in a campfire ring to crack loudly, startling any nearby marshmallow roasters. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    "    mGɄ    d<kXx2  Q    u%p>l	-)                  -4;	xa  '=xG      tk    -526
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 @  M@  T@  T @  *@  *@  .@  .P@  .(@  ~@  t@  h@  ^@  R@  F@  <@  0@  &@  @  @  @   @  @ ?     @    #    l`      %'Ύ׼xF1 ]      /   /   0   0          Grain1clip      Grain2clip      ?(   Lo + ' !-+˓9珲,${=&[ZYv2e4T\xu壋LhgtzP[KE^@2%$ecʅ5U=(	cD2vaœtƻc9qWgu=Jc;ⱊP
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 @    6J `@    6^ @@    5 @    5[K @@    4K x@    4W @    3 @    3T 	@    2K 	T@    2P 	@    1 	ĕ5  O=t  7  			<"u4 9  -<b΃]~  ;  ň6I[rdd =  hV3SB/  ?  Iň7;l; A  |* @    1M 	@    0K 
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jJJY% )  S% +     Żi"LKB% -  hԬe8A% /   ^>h% 1  +fԝi8P% 3  % @    ,K @    ,; (@    + \@    +8 @    * @    *4K @    ) <@    )1 t@    (K K     Żi"LTT. M  G	
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 @    L @     @     @    L @     @     @    } @     @    zL 
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E @    	 @    	B @    L @    > @     @    ; @    L @ ?       7 @     C  g    pS r(P 
 "@&EtldÄYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk Y(}bdY Y8}ôk   @  ?$    _root.WeatheringZones      ?p  . _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Tree Roots</u></b><br>Another wedging phenomenon is caused by tree roots.  Tree root tips are tiny and penetrate easily into fine fractures of rocks.  As the roots grow in diameter, they put stress on the rock that can cause the fractures to expand.  Roots of large trees can be several inches in diameter.  As they grow to this size they can cause significant separation in rock fractures.  During storms, trees that get blown down can actually yank chunks of rock out of the ground, attached to the tree roots.<br><b>*Where:</b>  In terms of climate, this weathering mechanism can occur anywhere that sufficient precipitation exists to sustain tree growth and rocks are exposed near the surface.  Tree root wedging can also occur invisibly, beneath a thin layer of soil. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    )   v/g,h  3  333C%T@  3  fff 0Hąz䃞Yz|i@ƙD̟A'@޴|fT,}i爳xcMkF# GƝ~o}x]XUY87<`lx=h{hd@"ڄ~ ٿˣ|A=AB4ҎSB%Jjocj?S>7"~f<I}TتZ*[?zbZqЫ!orG|{+
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Ʊ/L؏KJ|D0g9w1#]LiDHTB+lߴ5Xt֖TTc/[of˘$+p=3wsp`v3}eùufOf&.[Ӂ'B.O]u^R/ƮvZYWqPK9	8,rfRI`SpqXs*Wn_+Gkc+^V/øwX29E0+Q;׍,el~qn&؛.&	ixx>J3͙T#	eEaY3YZREgyvĹ~e^$[ߌlmZlėCKN
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 "@ EtldÄYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk M hà}dYÔ   @   ?%     _root.WeatheringZones   @ 0 # ?]   _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Chemical Weathering Overview</u></b><br>Gently stir some rock salt into a cup of water until it disappears.  <i>That</i> is chemical weathering.<br><i>Chemical</i> weathering breaks down rocks one atom at a time, dissolving minerals or changing one mineral into a more stable one by rearranging the ions and carrying away the unused ions dissolved in water.  There are thousands of different chemical reactions that affect rocks at the earth's surface and contribute to chemical weathering.  Fortunately, the most important of these fall into just three categories of chemical weathering reactions, which we explain here: <i>dissolution, oxidation,</i> and <i>hydrolysis</i>.  But keep in mind that there are many factors that contribute to promotion of chemical weathering:<br><b>*Climate</b> helps control chemical weathering processes in a simple fashion; water is required, and heat speeds the reactions.  Hot, wet climates are typically optimal for chemical weathering, and thus it is usually difficult even to find rock outcrops in tropical rain forest settings - exposed rock has been weathered away.<br><b>*Vegetation:</b>  Plants are a potent force for rocks to reckon with - and a deadly one (to the rocks).  We have already discussed the role of tree roots in wedging fractured rocks apart.  Far worse, however, is the way that plant <i>rootlets</i> can act directly as chemical weathering agents by stripping desirable ions away from mineral surfaces and replacing them with unwanted ions - the process of <i>cation exchange</i>. Note: A cation is an atom that has a positive charge because it has a deficit of electrons, so cation exchange is the replacement of one type of ion with another.  Even as plants decay, they contribute to chemical weathering; plant decomposition produces <i>organic acids</i> that further speed the weathering of minerals.<br><b>*Soil:</b>  Possibly the most important effect of chemical weathering is the production of soil.  Soil is, in essence, the result of chemical weathering.  <i>Clay minerals</i>, which are formed solely by chemical weathering, are a prominent component of nearly all soils.  In most of our discussion, we consider weathering as something that creates sediment to be moved away and deposited elsewhere as sedimentary rock.  But soil is simply made of clays and other chemical weathering products that stay right where they were formed, without being transported away.  With this in mind, we should remember that human-induced <i>soil erosion</i> takes away a critically important resource that can only be replaced slowly by natural processes.<br><b>*Mechanical weathering:</b>  Remember the way in which mechanical weathering contributes to fracturing the rocks?  This is critically important to chemical weathering because chemical reactions can <i>only</i> act on rock and mineral <i>surfaces</i>, not on an entire volume of rock. Thus rocks that are broken open by mechanical processes are given more surface area, and this result acts to speed along the chemical weathering reactions. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O        6 . y2 model W    p  r(P 
 "@(tYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk YLt}Yt   @  ?J    _root.WeatheringZones     !  _root.WeatheringZones   @ 100 #	 ?	  O	 _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Dissolution</u></b><br>The most familiar form of chemical weathering is <i>dissolution</i>.  We have all witnessed the dissolution of salt in water and sugar in tea or coffee - dissolution tears mineral grains apart and carries away the <i>ions</i> (electrically charged atoms or molecules) in solution.  We are also familiar with these ions; the taste of salt water is well known, and the salt in the ocean all comes from chemical reactions of water with rocks.  Finally, one type of rock dissolution is familiar to nearly everyone, either from personal experience or by reference - <i>caves</i> in rock are the result of dissolution, usually where the mineral calcite (CaCO3) in <i>limestones</i> has been dissolved by groundwater.<br><b>*Acids:</b>  Most dissolution in chemical weathering is not performed directly by the water but rather by acids contained in natural waters.  For example, rainwater is not perfectly "pure" but already contains dissolved <i>carbon dioxide</i> (CO2), which produces a weak acid called carbonic acid (also present in carbonated soft drinks).  Then, as rainwater filters down through soil, it becomes more acidic by addition of organic acids from plant decomposition.  When this acidic water comes in contact with limestone or other <i>soluble</i> (dissolvable) rocks, the rocks dissolve atom by atom.  Thus, in time, significant quantities of limestone are dissolved and disappear, carried ion by ion to the sea, to move along in the rock cycle.<br><b>*Climate:</b>  Climate controls on dissolution are strong but not always obvious.  For most rocks, dissolution increases with temperature (and certainly with the availability of water), so hot and wet climates are particularly suited to enhancing dissolution reactions.  However, the most widespread dissolution weathering phenomenon (limestone dissolution to form karst features) works best in cold and wet climates.  Calcite in limestone is actually more soluble in cold water than it is in warm water, so temperate and wet or cold and wet climates produce karst a little bit more rapidly than warm and wet climates do (with all other factors constant).  Despite this temperature control, karst features form readily in both hot and cold climates, because the effect of <i>acids</i> in the groundwater significantly overwhelms the temperature effect. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O    ;  <  M    JFIF  H H   C 
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  $xF18:;Y @  f    < 5;Q/ؙ֪L%    ;    h  	  -y	")+OW2~TlHHzD   _o ]    p r(P 
 "@!(tYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk Y,YÌYèkYÔ   @ ?$    _root.WeatheringZones      ?G   _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Oxidation</u></b><br>Oxidation is a very common type of chemical reaction and is also familiar to most people in the form of <i>rust</i> on old cars and other metallic surfaces.  Many minerals contain metallic cations that can undergo oxidation, although iron (Fe) is by far the most common one.  Many outcrops of iron-rich rock have reddish stains from "rusting" due to chemical weathering by oxidation reactions.  The conglomerate in the picture on the left is full of iron oxide "stains" (actually, the stains are clusters of tiny iron oxide minerals).  Iron oxides are sometimes so abundant in sandstones that the oxide minerals serve to cement the sand grains together.<br><b>*Detail:</b>  Strictly, oxidation is the addition of an electron to a <i>cation</i> (an atom that has a positive charge because it has a deficit of electrons); thus oxidation changes the charge of the cation.  For example, the element Fe (iron) commonly exists as Fe(III) (called "ferric" iron), which means that it has a deficit of three electrons (electrons add a negative charge to ions).  Oxidation of iron adds an electron and changes Fe(III) to Fe(II) ("ferrous" iron), and this is a very recognizable oxidation reaction because Fe(II) combines easily with other ions to form compounds with the distinctive reddish color of rust.  An example is the mineral Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, hematite, which comes in a variety of mineral forms but is most familiar to the public as a slate gray metallic jewelry stone. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O   8\    JFIF  H H   C 
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 "@(tYldY Ya(tdkt}Y| Yk YLYpdkYÔ   @     ?$    _root.WeatheringZones      ?   _root sidescroll sidetext <b><u>Hydrolysis</u></b><br>Hydrolysis is a family of chemical weathering reactions that involve direct reaction with water molecules (<i>hydrolysis</i> comes from the roots <i>hydro</i>, water, and <i>lysis</i>, reaction).  These are very common reactions, affecting most silicate minerals, including all of the feldspars - the most common group of minerals in earth's crust.  In hydrolysis reactions, H+ or OH- ions from water molecules displace other ions from a mineral's structure, forming a new mineral.  Most products of hydrolysis reactions are recognizable in their chemical formulas by the presence of hydroxyl (OH) groups.  Another common product of hydrolysis is the release of ions into solution (surface or groundwater), where they are transported as dissolved load in streams and groundwater.<br><b>*Clays:</b>  Among the most important products of hydrolysis are the <i>clay minerals</i>. Clays are flat, hydrous minerals in the mica family that form by the hydrolysis weathering of silicate minerals.  Clays are most familiar to us as a prime component of the mud that sticks to shoes when working in a garden and of the mud in mud puddles and mud pies.  When feldspars in a rock weather to clay (see the animation on the left), they typically expand slightly and can cause a tiny wedging effect on the surrounding crystals or grains.  More important than that, however, is that the growth of clays in a crystalline matrix significantly weakens the structure of the rock, allowing mechanical weathering to become more effective.  Thus hydrolysis not only makes mushy clays out of hard minerals but also helps loosen up the whole rock.<br><b>*Climate:</b>  Climate control on hydrolysis is substantial and direct.  Water is a requirement for hydrolysis reactions, so humid environments are more prone to hydrolysis than arid regions.  As with many other chemical reactions, hydrolysis proceeds more rapidly in higher temperatures.  Thus hot, humid areas such as tropical rain forests are ideal for hydrolysis reactions and the formation of very thick, clay-rich soils.  In fact, tropical rain forest soils are so prone to hydrolysis that these soils are thick but not rich in nutrients; the intense weathering commonly leaches (strips) nutrients out of the soil, leaving a clay-rich, nutrient-poor foundation for forest growth.  Most of the productivity of a tropical rain forest comes not from the thick soils but from an ecosystem that is highly efficient at decomposing and recapturing every nutrient ion that falls from the canopy.<br><b>*Soil resources:</b>  Soil erosion is a significant problem in today's "modern" system of intense agriculture.  Soil is a renewable resource because chemical weathering is a continuing process.  But if soil erosion from sowing, harvesting, and rainstorms takes its toll faster than hydrolysis can generate new clays from the parent rock, the soil becomes a disappearing, nonrenewable resource.  In many areas of the world, soil erosion produced a serious decline in the native fertility of the soils, requiring expensive artificial fertilizers to supplement the natural soil fertility to sustain adequate rates of agricultural production. scroll  _root    N O   N N    O       l` @ ¤\*G81F@ ?	6@ Ո@|w  @ 鏟L61T@ *UjPR@ <.S5̱:@ ͩ56c@@ osX)>i׃w@ ɦi5W@[P.P @ յz6Q@ -nK[VH]~`@ P֭mK.@ 	ИYhͲ@ q}`J}a*@ (	:~     A5b&HFA7<@DõL쿏n'tZ-%9oPB-;)ي#X@ξQ)獚=vMifݍ+c;ZF\_CSۥ5BMٳ2>3)aoΆrd1TuQ따iE*0$i	up6Ȁ DBx(3Gޔ9Ҧ̎R:RڙۥmDք8[`Lvϛ6{ז<Xf.y5!*nvKh)FLB(nO6'̈́YA-zmp2=Ulҵ|g_dku%#_/~H5;*C	XE6lA1P&7ZR0>;HcLNl2ؔZMj#T/(`vћ$؛2m	3e	y0g5C-[v_2\ps{k5ƚ`8Dmq25Ce3i4l(DL;iRC>f=wu`HU }$F-*iqM)"A\5+Ja3P"
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  }5J]V	   }5N	   MpiP 	   Mplu	   MphN	   MpLzb	   Mp.	   oBzH	 "  F#uZ	 %  愽j1y5k 	 (  F#u`	 +  F#u	 .  F#to@	 1  Q>(h	 4  v;q5d	 7  ܚMpqg 	 :  F#u<	 =  F#u6	 @  F#t#@	 C  F#tS 	 F   ½B1A	 I  =(b 	 L  F#u9j	 O  F#u@	 R  F#u	 U  F#uS	 X  F#ug	 [  F#u	 ^  F#u@	 a  F#uFp	 d  F#uڏ$	 g  F#u˲	 j  F#u8	 @ 	 z  ` @ 	 l #	0 @ 	 ^ &J  @ 	 QE ) @ 	 C4 , @ 	 6d /̀ @ 	 )
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hPh  E ,jd<"t^<     Ć  @, BxҁPq+NBCI
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      E  
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